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Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) 2023 Series: Part III – Impact & Implementation Challenges

Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) 2023 Series: Part III – Impact & Implementation Challenges By Lt Col Ujjual Abhishek Jha, Retd The enactment of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) 2023 marks a seismic shift in India’s legislative approach to privacy and simultaneously introduces a complex web of operational demands for businesses. From […]

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Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) 2023 Series: Part III – Impact & Implementation Challenges

By Lt Col Ujjual Abhishek Jha, Retd

The enactment of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) 2023 marks a seismic shift in India’s legislative approach to privacy and simultaneously introduces a complex web of operational demands for businesses. From re-engineering legacy data systems to navigating the nuances of “Data Fiduciaries” and “Significant Data Fiduciaries,” the road to compliance is paved with both technical hurdles and strategic questions. In this part of our series, we dive into the tangible impact of the DPDPA and the primary challenges organizations face in turning these legal mandates into functional realities.

DPDPA: Enforcement Timeline

The DPDPA applies exclusively to digital personal data, data collected digitally or subsequently digitised, processed in India, or outside India in connection with offering goods or services to individuals in India.

Impact & Challenges

• Impact on Individuals (Data Principals)
DPDPA strengthens individual control over personal data, translating the constitutional right to privacy into enforceable statutory rights. Data principals rights include: –
• Right to Access – obtain a summary of personal data held and processing activities though notably without a data portability right.
• Right to Correction and Erasure – request rectification of inaccurate data or deletion of data no longer required.
• Right to Withdraw Consent – revoke consent at any time, data fiduciaries must respond within 90 days.
• Right to Nominate – appoint a nominee to exercise rights in case of incapacitation or death.
• Right to Grievance Redressal – exhaustion of internal mechanism required for complaint be lodged with the DPBI.
• Children under 18: heightened protection – verifiable parental/guardian consent is mandatory before processing a minor’s data, with specific exemptions carved out for healthcare professionals, educational institutions and child transport providers. Penalty up to Rs 200 crores.

Implementation Challenges for Individuals
• Literacy and Awareness Gap – India’s low digital literacy users may not be able to practically exercise rights, file complaints or interpret consent notices. The notice requirement specifies English and all 22 Scheduled languages, creating a multilingual compliance obligation, which remains a challenge.
• Dark Patterns and Consent Quality – While the DPDPA prohibits conditional consent and pre-ticked boxes, enforcement against confusing consent flows or hidden opt-outs, will depend heavily on DPBI capacity and proactive complaint filing.
• Grievance Exhaustion Requirement – Data principals must exhaust the data fiduciary’s internal grievance mechanism before approaching the DPBI. The 90-day response window, while clear, could be exploited as a delay mechanism by less scrupulous operators.
• RTI Act Amendment: Right to Know vs Right to Privacy – One of the most consequential changes brought by the DPDPA is the amendment to Section 8(1)(j) of the Right to Information Act, 2005. The original provision allowed disclosure of personal data held by public authorities in the ‘larger public interest’. The DPDPA removes this override, significantly curtailing the ability of citizens and journalists to access personal data held by government bodies.

Impact on MSMEs and Small Businesses
• Scope of Compliance Obligations – MSMEs that process digital personal data with customer-facing digital touchpoints, employee HR systems or supplier databases, are subject to the DPDPA. The aspects include, consent, notice requirements, purpose limitation, data minimisation, reasonable security safeguards, breach notification (72-hour deadline), data principal rights handling and contractual obligations with data processors. The Act offers no blanket small-business exemption.
• Sector-Specific Heightened Risk – Most MSMEs will not be classified as Significant Data Fiduciaries, avoiding the DPO and DPIA obligations. However, volume-driven or sector-specific designation is possible for Fintech and lending platforms processing KYC and financial data, Healthtech and telemedicine platforms with patient records, Edtech platforms with children’s data, SaaS and E-commerce.
• Compliance Cost and Capacity Challenges
• Budget and Resource Constraints – Legal, technical and organisational costs may range from ?5–25 lakh for a simple MSME to ?50 lakh or more for data-heavy verticals, costs that can be existentially challenging for businesses in early stages.
• Legacy Systems and Data Mapping – Many MSMEs operate on basic ERP systems, Excel-based databases, or fragmented CRMs that lack built-in consent tracking, automated data deletion workflows, or audit logging capabilities. Mapping all personal data flows including through informal channels such as WhatsApp Business, ad-tech trackers, and offline data later digitised to meet documentation requirements is technically complex without dedicated resources.
• Awareness Gap – Awareness of DPDPA obligations among MSME operators remains low and without targeted government outreach programmes, many small businesses risk inadvertent non-compliance.
• 72-Hour Breach Notification – The 72-hour window to notify the DPBI and affected data principals of a personal data breach demands 24/7 incident monitoring infrastructure that most MSMEs lack.

Impact on Large Corporates and Conglomerates

For large enterprises, the DPDPA drives a fundamental shift toward institutionalised privacy governance and requires a privacy-by-design approach. Key enterprise-level requirements include enterprise privacy policies and data governance frameworks, role-based access controls and privileged access management, vendor and third-party data processing agreements with mandatory DPDPA compliance clauses, accountability through privacy registers, audit trails and board-level oversight and automated data lifecycle management.

Significant Data Fiduciary Obligations – Large enterprises across sectors are likely to be designated as SDFs which entails appointment of an India based DPO, annual Data Protection Impact Assessments, annual independent audits, algorithmic risk verification and potential data localisation mandates for government-specified data categories.
Implementation Challenges for Large Corporates and Conglomerates

• Legacy System Modernisation – India’s large corporate landscape runs on legacy architectures that lack support for consent tracking, automated erasure or granular access logging.
• Multi-Regulator Complexity (BFSI) – They will have dual-compliance challenge meeting RBI, SEBI, IRDAI and NPCI requirements and reconciling KYC data processing under DPDPA’s consent and purpose-limitation principles requirement.
• DPO Scarcity – The requirement of DPO creates a talent supply crisis with India has fewer than 5,000 practitioners with certifications.
• AI and Algorithmic Compliance – The requirement for algorithmic risk verification introduces compliance overhead at the model design, training and deployment stages and may require significant architectural changes.

Impact on International Business
• Extraterritorial Reach – The DPDPA applies to any entity Indian or foreign that processes personal data of individuals located in India in connection with offering goods or services to those individuals. Foreign entities without an India office but serving Indian users through e-commerce, SaaS, mobile apps or digital services must comply with the full DPDPA regime, including responding to DPBI enforcement.
• Cross-Border Data Transfers: The Negative List – DPDPA establish a ‘negative list’ approach to cross-border transfers, personal data may be transferred to any country except those specifically restricted by the Central Government notification. However, it introduces a distinctive set of challenges, as no published criteria of blacklisted countries, No advance notice requirements for Blacklisting, No standard contractual clauses and persistence of sector specific laws.
• Compliance Cost – Multinational companies face layered compliance costs of updating global privacy policies for Indian requirements, implementing multilingual consent notices, deploying India-specific consent management infrastructure, renegotiating data processing agreements with India-based processors and sub-processors, and maintaining the technical capability to respond to DPBI enforcement actions.

Impact on Government and Law Enforcement Agencies
Government as Data Fiduciary – Government entities are ‘data fiduciaries’ under the DPDPA when processing citizens’ digital personal data and subject to the same baseline obligations as private sector entities. However, Section 17 of the DPDPA provides exemptions for State processing for sovereignty, integrity, security, public order, and prevention/investigation of offences, research, archiving or statistical purposes, Legal and judicial proceedings and Processing of non-residents personal data within India.
Law Enforcement and Investigation Challenges – Law enforcement agencies face a contradiction, as data fiduciaries must comply with DPDPA and mandated for exemptions. This creates operational complexity as legacy systems holding this data still require security safeguards.

Judicial Implications
• Appellate Jurisdiction Telecom Disputes Settlement and Appellate Tribunal (TDSAT) – TDSAT is designated as the appellate body for DPBI decisions, is primarily a telecommunications regulator with limited data privacy jurisprudence.
• No Criminal Penalties – This reduces the risk of regulatory overreach against individuals but may limit deterrence effectiveness for misuse by corporate actors who can absorb financial penalties as a cost of business.
• Interpretation Challenges – Courts and the DPBI will face interpretive questions as What constitutes ‘reasonable security safeguards’, How Puttaswamy judgement applies to the government exemptions and interplay between DPDPA and sector-specific regulations where conflicts arise.

DPDPA 2023 is more than just a compliance checklist and is a catalyst for a fundamental cultural shift in how data is perceived. While the implementation challenges are significant, they are implementable. Organizations that view these hurdles as an opportunity to build ‘Privacy by Design’ will likely find themselves with a competitive edge in an increasingly data-conscious global market.

(Lt Col Ujjual Abhishek Jha, Retd is a Certified Data Privacy Professional and Strategic & Geopolitical Advisor with over two decades of experience in intelligence, insider threat management, financial crime investigations, and geopolitical risk analysis, advising on complex security and strategic risks.)

For Part I – Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) 2023 Series: Part I — The Foundations of Privacy: Evolution of Indian Laws & A Roadmap to DPDPA – The Frontier Manipur
For Part II – Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) 2023 Series: Part II — From Principles to Practice: The DPDP Rules 2025, Global Paradigms & India’s Middle Path – The Frontier Manipur

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INNOCENT BLOODS SHED: Rocket Attack Kills Two Children & Severely Injures Mother, Imphal Valley Seized By Massive Tension

Fresh Horror Struck Tronglaobi in Bishnupur District as Suspected Militant Strike Turns a Home into a Living Grave. TFM Report The Imphal Valley, particularly Bishnupur District, has been gripped by tension and rising public anger since early morning Tuesday (April 7, 2026), after the news of the killing of two children and their mother […]

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Fresh Horror Struck Tronglaobi in Bishnupur District as Suspected Militant Strike Turns a Home into a Living Grave.

TFM Report

The Imphal Valley, particularly Bishnupur District, has been gripped by tension and rising public anger since early morning Tuesday (April 7, 2026), after the news of the killing of two children and their mother in an improvised rocket/pompi attack.

According to sources, suspected Kuki militants launched a projectile—believed to be a rocket—targeting a civilian residence in Moirang Tronglaobi village. The explosive struck the house directly through a window, triggering a powerful blast that killed two young siblings and left their mother seriously injured.

Siblings Aged 5 Years and 5 Months Killed

The victims have been identified as a five-year-old boy, his five-month-old sister and their mother who later succumbed to injuries, as per sources from the locality. The explosion caused significant damage to the house and sent shockwaves across Imphal valley, with village residents rushing to the scene in an attempt to rescue the injured.

*The children struck by the splinters of from the rocket blast being ruched to a nearby hospital. Source: Social Media*

Locals claimed the projectile was fired from nearby hill slopes, suggesting that the launch point was located more than three kilometres away. Tronglaobi lies along the vulnerable hill-valley fringe near Moirang in Bishnupur district, close to the elevated areas of Churachandpur district, a region that has witnessed repeated tensions in since May 3, 2023.

Fury Spills into Streets – Police Station Gate Torched by Irate Mob

By post-dawn, irate mobs converged at the Moirang Police Station and burnt down the gate, as anger over the deaths of the two children boiled over. Reports are emerging that the incident is likely to trigger widespread protest and subsequent reactions across the valley, raising fears of a fresh spiral of violence.

Security Tightened – Forces Deployed Along Hill-Valley Boundary

As expected, security has been significantly tightened across the area following the attack, an act considered too late by the public. Additional forces have been deployed to prevent further escalation, while surveillance and search operations are underway in adjoining hill regions. Authorities are also closely monitoring other sensitive villages along the hill-valley boundary to avert any further incidents, said a source.

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INNOCENT BLOODS SHED: Rocket Attack Kills Two Children & Severely Injures Mother, Imphal Valley Seized By Massive Tension

The post INNOCENT BLOODS SHED: Rocket Attack Kills Two Children & Severely Injures Mother, Imphal Valley Seized By Massive Tension first appeared on The Frontier Manipur.

Fresh Horror Struck Tronglaobi in Bishnupur District as Suspected Militant Strike Turns a Home into a Living Grave.

TFM Report

Siblings Aged 5 Years and 5 Months Killed

Fury Spills into Streets – Police Station Gate Torched by Irate Mob

Security Tightened – Forces Deployed Along Hill-Valley Boundary

The post INNOCENT BLOODS SHED: Rocket Attack Kills Two Children & Severely Injures Mother, Imphal Valley Seized By Massive Tension first appeared on The Frontier Manipur.

INNOCENT BLOODS SHED: Rocket Attack Kills Two Children & Severely Injures Mother, Imphal Valley Seized By Massive Tension

The post INNOCENT BLOODS SHED: Rocket Attack Kills Two Children & Severely Injures Mother, Imphal Valley Seized By Massive Tension first appeared on The Frontier Manipur.

Fresh Horror Struck Tronglaobi in Bishnupur District as Suspected Militant Strike Turns a Home into a Living Grave.

TFM Report

Siblings Aged 5 Years and 5 Months Killed

Fury Spills into Streets – Police Station Gate Torched by Irate Mob

Security Tightened – Forces Deployed Along Hill-Valley Boundary

The post INNOCENT BLOODS SHED: Rocket Attack Kills Two Children & Severely Injures Mother, Imphal Valley Seized By Massive Tension first appeared on The Frontier Manipur.

India Commits to Stronger Climate Action with NDC 3.0

India reinforces global climate stance with calibrated targets aligned to Viksit Bharat 2047 vision. Cabinet clears updated climate commitments aiming 60% non-fossil power capacity and expanded carbon sinks by 2035. New framework balances development needs with decarbonisation amid West Asia conflict and energy security concerns By Salam Rajesh The Government of India recently took a […]

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By Salam Rajesh

The Government of India recently took a significant step forward in its climate commitments with the Cabinet, chaired by Prime Minister Narendra Modi, approving the country’s updated Nationally Determined Contributions (NDCs).

Analysts say although delayed, the third institution of the NDCs comes at a time when the global supply chains and energy security have been severely disrupted owing to the conflict in West Asia.

India’s NDC 3.0 builds on a strong track record, where earlier the country had enhanced its Nationally Determined Contributions and met key targets well ahead of schedule, including achieving over 50% non-fossil power capacity nearly five years before the 2030 deadline.

A Press Information Bureau (PIB) release said the new NDC framework sets out a roadmap for the target years 2033-2035, anchored in the principles of the Common but Differentiated Responsibilities (CBDR-RC) and the vision of Viksit Bharat 2047.

The framework targets a 47% reduction in emission intensity, expansion of non-fossil power capacity to 60%, and a significant increase in carbon sinks up to 4 billion tons, the PIB report said.

India’s Central Electricity Authority estimates in the National Power Adequacy Plan that by 2035-36, nearly 70% of electricity capacity will come from non-fossil sources. However, its formal commitment as approved under NDC 3.0 under the UN framework sets a lower target of 60%.

Similarly, India’s target of reducing emission intensity to 47% by 2035 reflects a calibrated approach, the release said noting that as a fast-growing and emerging economy, India’s intensity-based target balances development needs with climate ambition.

In the current geopolitical context of supply chain disruptions and energy security concerns, this target provides flexibility while remaining aligned with its broader aspirational goals and long-term net-zero pathway.

The announcement comes amid an ongoing conflict in West Asia, which has disrupted energy supply chains and has highlighted risks of the global economy’s dependence on fossil fuels.

In this context, India’s demonstrated stance on decarbonizing its energy and transport systems signals continuity. The country, which had met its past climate commitments ahead of schedule, also holds the BRICS chair this year. The commitments announced raise expectations of a BRICS-led focus on de-risking supply chains through decarbonisation under India’s presidency, the PIB release noted.

The strategy underpinned by India has emphasized climate-resilient infrastructure, green industrial pathways, behavioral shifts and the development of low-cost green finance and advanced research and development ecosystems, reflecting an economy-wide approach to deep decarbonisation, it said.

This assessment comes in terms of the country’s achievement in 36% reduction in emission intensity of GDP achieved between 2005-2020, where 52.57% of India’s power generation capacity is from clean, non-fossil sources and was achieved 5 years ahead of the 2030 schedule.

2.3 billion tons of carbon sink was created through forests and trees, indicating India’s NDC submitted in 2015 had the target of achieving 33 to 35% reduction in the emissions intensity of GDP and 40% share of non-fossil resources based electric power installed capacity by 2030, both of which were met, 11 years and 9 years ahead of the committed timelines respectively, the PIB statement said.

Outlining the vision for NDC 3.0, the government press statement said the qualitative goals are intended to embed sustainability into everyday life and governance systems, promote climate-resilient development pathways, and enable a just and inclusive transition for all sections of the society.

Eight major goals for 2033-2035, aligned with CBDR-RC and Viksit Bharat 2047, were announced. These include Goal 1: Target reduction of emission intensity to 47% by 2035, Goal 2: Achieve 60% of cumulative installed electricity capacity non-fossil power capacity by 2035.

Goal 3 seeks increase in carbon sink from 2.3 billion tons to 3.5-4.0 billion tons through tree and plantation cover, while Goal 4 targets climate-friendly and cleaner path of economic development, citing the example of the ongoing investments in electrification of the Railways.

Goal 5 looks at the resilient infrastructure to combat climate change effects like sudden rain and cloud bursts, while Goal 6 seeks in promoting the Prime Minister’s ‘Lifestyle for Environment (LiFE)’ mission.

Goal 7 looks at developing low-cost, long-term finance mechanisms for green energy, and Goal 8 seeks capacity building and research and development, with focus on cutting edge technology and international collaborations.

Lauri Myllyvirta, Lead Analyst and Co-Founder, Centre for Research on Energy and Clean Air, reflects that India’s new 2035 climate targets underestimate the country’s potential for transformative clean energy growth.

Under current plans, the target of 60% clean power capacity will be achieved before 2030, rather than by 2035, Lauri reflected, noting that continuing the current clean energy growth at rates already achieved in 2024-25 would enable India to peak power sector emissions well before 2030 and significantly slow down its CO2 emission growth rates.

Yet, the carbon intensity target announced allows for an acceleration of emissions growth compared with past rates if GDP growth is at target. India’s booming clean energy industry is highly likely to deliver much faster progress than policymakers were prepared to commit to, she said.

Deliberating on the issue, Aarti Khosla, Director, Climate Trends noted that India’s updated NDC targets reflect a realistic yet forward-looking climate strategy, especially coming at a time when the global order is fractured and the future of energy policy is very uncertain.

Releasing the NDC at this juncture reinforces that as a country India respects multilateralism and equity, both aspects found wanting in the world today, she noted.

A 47% reduction in emission intensity by 2035, alongside achieving 60% non-fossil capacity, signals continuity in ambition while remaining grounded in domestic, developmental and geopolitical realities.

The fact that India has already crossed 50% non-fossil capacity underscores the credibility of this trajectory, and equally important is the expansion of carbon sinks, which reinforces the country’s commitment to nature-based solutions, Aarti emphasized.

In a global context where attention is increasingly shifting toward energy security and climate finance flows are under strain, India’s approach stands out for its balance. It prioritizes domestic capability, resilience, and long-term sustainability while continuing to advance its climate commitments, a positive sign for the entire global south and the BRICS, especially with India chairing the grouping annual meet this year, she observed.

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Two-Day Training on Climate-Resilient Aquaculture held at Manipur University

Programme aims to equip fish farmers with climate-adaptive technologies and sustainable aquaculture practices. Experts stress sustainable fisheries, innovation and local knowledge integration for Northeast resilience. TFM Desk A two-day Training-cum-Capacity Building Programme on “Climate Resilient Aquaculture Technologies” for fish farmers and entrepreneurs of Manipur was organised on March 28 and March 29 at Manipur University, […]

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TFM Desk

A two-day Training-cum-Capacity Building Programme on “Climate Resilient Aquaculture Technologies” for fish farmers and entrepreneurs of Manipur was organised on March 28 and March 29 at Manipur University, Canchipur.

The programme is being jointly organised by the Department of Zoology, Manipur University, in collaboration with ICAR-Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Mumbai, with the inaugural session held at the VC Court Hall.

The inaugural function began at 9:30 AM in the presence of several dignitaries. Director of the Directorate of Environment and Climate Change, Government of Manipur, Dr. T. Brajakumar Singh attended as the Chief Guest. Dean of the School of Life Sciences, Prof. N. Mohilal Meitei, and Principal Scientist of ICAR-CIFE, Dr. S. Munilkumar, were present as Guests of Honour. The function was presided over by Head of the Department of Zoology, Prof. Ksh. Birla Singh.

The programme began with the felicitation of dignitaries, followed by a welcome address by Dr. Rameshori Yumnam, who is also the coordinator. She highlighted the urgent need to adopt climate-resilient aquaculture practices in view of increasing climate variability affecting fish production systems across Northeast India.

Speaking on the inaugural function, Dr. Munilkumar underscored the importance of scientific interventions, capacity building and technology dissemination to improve precision farming, aquaculture productivity and sustainability. He also stressed the need to integrate modern aquaculture techniques with local knowledge systems.

Prof. Mohilal Meitei noted that Manipur is essentially a lacustrine society, with livelihoods and culture deeply linked to water bodies. He emphasized that sustainable fisheries are crucial for ensuring food security, nutrition and preserving cultural heritage.

In his address, Chief Guest Dr. Brajakumar Singh highlighted the role of environmentally sustainable aquaculture in tackling climate change and securing livelihoods for fish farmers. He encouraged participants to actively engage in the training and adopt innovative practices.

Presiding over the function, Prof. Birla Singh reiterated Manipur University’s commitment to strengthening research, training and extension activities in aquaculture for the benefit of local communities.

As part of the inaugural programme, essential aquaculture inputs were distributed to participants. The session concluded with a vote of thanks proposed by Dr. M. Manorama Devi.

The two-day programme held on March 28–29, 2026, aims to equip participants with practical knowledge on climate-resilient aquaculture technologies such as biofloc, aquaponics and hatchery management. It also focuses on water management, species diversification and sustainable farming practices.

The initiative is expected to enhance adaptive capacity, improve productivity and promote sustainable aquaculture development in Manipur and the wider Northeast region.

Top of Form

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Adaptation Matters, ICJ On Climate Change

Landmark 2025 advisory opinion reframes climate adaptation as a due diligence obligation, urging states to act on science, equity, and global cooperation. Non-binding yet authoritative ruling signals legal consequences for inaction, placing climate resilience at the heart of international law. By Salam Rajesh In July of 2025, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered a […]

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By Salam Rajesh

In July of 2025, the International Court of Justice (ICJ) delivered a landmark Advisory Opinion on the Obligations of States in Respect of Climate Change.

The ICJ’s Advisory Opinion provides authoritative legal guidance on Member States’ obligations to address climate change and prevent significant harm to vulnerable countries and communities across the globe.

While the ICJ’s Advisory Opinion is non-binding, it makes clear that failure to act can trigger legal consequences. States require timely and accessible analysis to understand their legal obligations and the consequences of breaching them.

On understanding why the ICJ’s Advisory Opinion matters for climate change adaptation, the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD) in its analysis suggests that climate change adaptation is one of the core pillars of the international climate regime.

With reference to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC, 2022), climate change adaptation is the process of preparing, and adjusting to, for actual or expected impacts associated with climate change.

Fundamentally, adaptation is about protecting people in an uncertain future and making communities, economies, and ecosystems more resilient to a changing climate.

The ICJ’s Advisory Opinion develops from the perspective that climate change is now a force to be reckoned with and that adaptation can no longer be viewed as solely a domestic policy choice, but as a binding obligation under international law and assessed against a standard of due diligence.

This means that for all practical purposes, all countries must use their best efforts to engage in adaptation planning and implementation, based on the best available science, and to undertake precautionary and forward-looking measures, continuously adjusting their responses as climate risks evolve.

The ICJ noted with concern that countries continue to have discretion over how adaptation is planned and implemented, based on their risk contexts and national circumstances, and provided that such efforts aim to prevent and address foreseeable climate harm.

With due diligence to the ICJ’s Advisory Opinion, national adaptation plans, policies and strategies, therefore, take on a renewed significance as instruments through which individual countries may demonstrate their commitments to, and compliance with international laws.

This runs in conjunction to the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience (UNFCCC, 2023) whereupon countries need to formulate and submit their national adaptation plans, policies and strategies, and progress in implementing them by the target year 2030.

The IISD analysis stressed that all developed countries have a binding obligation to provide and mobilize adaptation finance, technology transfer and capacity building for developing countries, in the context of the New Collective Quantified Goal on Climate Finance and the Mutirão decision’s call to at least triple adaptation finance by the year 2035.

All countries, too, have the obligation to cooperate with each other on adaptation knowledge sharing, it stated.

The IISD analysis further emphasized that a country-driven, gender-responsive, participatory and fully transparent approach that integrates human rights considerations and pays particular attention to vulnerable people, places and ecosystems is integral to effective adaptation planning and implementation that yield equitable benefits for people of all backgrounds.

It cautioned that a fragmented approach undermines adaptation outcomes, whereupon obligations under international human rights law are interrelated with countries’ adaptation obligations, and they all form part of the legal context against which adaptation efforts are assessed.

Integrated and synergistic approaches to address the climate and biodiversity crises and land degradation strengthen adaptation, biodiversity and land degradation neutrality outcomes, it stated.

The ICJ observed that under the UNFCCC and the Paris Agreement, respective parties have procedural obligations to engage in adaptation planning processes and the implementation of adaptation actions (ICJ, 2025, paras. 255-257).

This would necessitate the formulation, submission and regular updating of national adaptation plans, policies or strategies, the ICJ noted, while stressing that the assessment of climate change impacts and vulnerability, and the monitoring, evaluation and learning from adaptation actions is highly essential.

The ICJ further stressed the need for integration of climate change considerations in relevant social, economic and environmental policies and actions, while employing appropriate methods to minimize adverse effects that adaptation projects or measures could have on the economy, public health, and the quality of the environment.

Importantly, it emphasized on the strengthening of international cooperation to enhance adaptation actions and support.

The ICJ Advisory Opinion noted that a standard of due diligence would be used to assess the parties’ fulfillment of their adaptation obligations (ICJ, 2025, para. 258). This means that, in terms of adaptation, acting with due diligence requires the parties to use their best efforts to enact appropriate adaptation measures, in a timely manner, to reduce the risk of significant harm occurring due to climate change impacts.

The ICJ called on parties to base their adaptation planning and implementation, such as the national adaptation plan (NAP) process, on the best available science and technological information, such as, availing the information, knowledge and tools from the IPCC and other international rules, standards, guidelines, and best practices.

It advised parties to take precautionary measures and enact forward-looking policies, such as integrating climate risk considerations in development policies and plans, or continuously updating building codes and infrastructure standards to reflect climate realities.

The ICJ called on parties to ensure continuous improvement by following the dimensions of the iterative adaptation cycle (defined by the UAE Framework for Global Climate Resilience as impact, vulnerability, and risk assessments; planning; implementation; monitoring, evaluation and learning; and iteration of these four steps) as the due diligence standard.

It urged parties to follow a country-driven, gender-responsive, participatory and fully transparent approach to adaptation planning and implementation in achieving the goals enshrined in the Paris Agreement and other climate protocols.

The analysis appears in the International Institute for Sustainable Development (IISD)’s briefing note: ‘Unpacking the implications of the ICJ Advisory Opinion on Climate Change’, published earlier this month.

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Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) 2023 Series: Part II — From Principles to Practice: The DPDP Rules 2025, Global Paradigms & India’s Middle Path

The DPDP Rules serve as the procedural manual for the Act, detailing the mechanisms through which the law will function. They provide granularity on board composition, grievance workflows, classification criteria, and the technical and organisational measures required for compliance. By Lt Col Ujjual Abhishek Jha, Retd The enactment of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, […]

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By Lt Col Ujjual Abhishek Jha, Retd

The enactment of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 (DPDPA) established the foundational architecture for India’s data privacy regime. However, the operationalisation of any legislation lies in its rules. The notification of the DPDP Rules, 2025, marks the transition from statutory intent to enforceable reality. This second installment in the series unpacks these rules, contextualises India’s framework within the global privacy landscape, and analyses the unique “Third Way” that India has carved out for itself.

The DPDP Rules 2025: Operationalising the Act

The DPDP Rules serve as the procedural manual for the Act, detailing the mechanisms through which the law will function. They provide granularity on board composition, grievance workflows, classification criteria, and the technical and organisational measures required for compliance. Crucially, they establish a phased enforcement timeline, allowing regulated entities a structured runway to achieve compliance.

The Regulatory Arbitrator: Data Protection Board of India (DPBI)

The Rules formally empower the Data Protection Board of India (DPBI) as a specialised, digital-first adjudicatory body. Unlike traditional regulators, the DPBI is designed to function as a tribunal, conducting inquiries into data breaches, presiding over formal hearings, and levying financial penalties. Its primary mandate is to ensure that Data Fiduciaries—entities that determine the purpose and means of data processing—remain accountable to the law.

Tiered Accountability: Significant Data Fiduciaries (SDFs)

Recognising that not all data processing carries equal risk, the framework introduces the concept of Significant Data Fiduciaries (SDFs). The Central Government will designate entities as SDFs based on criteria such as the volume and sensitivity of data processed, the potential risk to the rights of Data Principals (individuals to whom the data pertains), and implications for national security or public order.

Entities classified as SDFs must adhere to enhanced obligations:

– Mandatory appointment of a Data Protection Officer (DPO) based in India.

– Engagement of independent auditors to validate compliance.

– Conduct of Data Protection Impact Assessments (DPIAs) to proactively evaluate privacy risks associated with new technologies or processes.

The Consent Ecosystem: A Novel Introduction

In a significant innovation over global models, the DPDPA introduces the role of Consent Managers. These entities act as a bridge between the individual and the Data Fiduciary, providing a seamless, interoperable interface. Through a Consent Manager, individuals can grant, manage, review, and withdraw their consents in a centralised, real-time manner, transforming consent from a one-time checkbox into an ongoing, auditable process.

Cross-Border Data Transfers: The Negative List Strategy

One of the most pragmatic features of the framework is its approach to cross-border data flows. Departing from earlier drafts that mandated strict data localisation, the DPDPA operates on a Negative List principle. Under this model, cross-border data transfers are generally permitted to all countries and sectors except those specifically notified by the government as restricted. This approach ensures the smooth functioning of international trade and cloud-based services while retaining the state’s sovereign power to block data flows to hostile or high-risk jurisdictions.

Transparency, Grievance Redressal, and Compensation

The efficacy of the law rests on the clarity of its notice and grievance workflows. The Act specifies the modalities through which a Data Fiduciary must communicate with users—whether through electronic notifications, app-based prompts, or assisted means for those with limited digital literacy. Furthermore, it establishes strict timelines and tracking obligations for responding to user requests, ensuring that the Right to Correction and Right to Erasure are actionable through standard, time-bound processes.

Enforcement and Implementation Timeline

The rules establish a staggered implementation schedule to facilitate a smooth transition:

– Immediate Effect (from date of Gazette notification, 13 November 2025): Certain “enabling” sections of the Act, along with Rules 1, 2, and 17-21 (covering preliminary aspects, DPBI constitution, and procedural matters), are effective immediately.

– One Year (by late 2026): Rule 4, which pertains to registration and specific compliance obligations, comes into force one year after publication.

– Eighteen Months (by mid-2027): The bulk of operational duties—including rights handling, security controls, classification of SDFs, and penalty procedures (Rules 3, 5-16, 22, and 23)—become effective eighteen months after publication. This implies full compliance obligations will be in force by 2027, although sectoral regulators may compress timelines for critical industries.

The Global Privacy Landscape: A Comparative Overview

India’s privacy framework does not exist in a vacuum. It is shaped by, and must interoperate with, the leading data protection regimes from around the world. The most influential of these remains the European Union’s General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR), which has set a benchmark for modern privacy laws globally.

– European Union: General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR)

The GDPR applies to any entity offering goods or services to EU residents, regardless of its location. It introduced seminal concepts such as the “Right to be Forgotten” and “Data Portability.” It mandates one of six legal bases for processing and is renowned for its stringent penalties, which can reach up to €20 million or 4% of global annual turnover.

– United States: California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA/CPRA)

In the absence of a federal privacy law, the CCPA serves as the de facto standard in the US. It focuses on consumer rights, particularly the right to opt out of the “sale” or “sharing” of personal data. It is enforced by the California Privacy Protection Agency (CPPA).

– China: Personal Information Protection Law (PIPL)

Often referred to as the “GDPR of China,” the PIPL is characterised by a strong state-centric approach. It imposes stringent restrictions on cross-border data transfers, requiring security assessments by state authorities. Its definition of “sensitive data” is notably broad.

– Brazil: Lei Geral de Proteção de Dados (LGPD)

The LGPD is largely based on the GDPR framework but adapted to the Brazilian market. It applies to any data processing activity within Brazil, irrespective of where the processing entity is located.

A comparative analysis of these frameworks against India’s DPDPA reveals the distinct contours of India’s approach:

Feature	GDPR (EU)	CCPA (USA-CA)	PIPL (China)	DPDPA (India)
Model	Rights-based	Consumer-based	State-centric	Consent-based
Applicability	Digital & non-digital	Digital	Digital & non-digital	Digital only
Data Localization	No (Adequacy based)	No	Strict	Limited (Negative List)
Sensitive Data	Explicit Categories	Explicit Categories	Explicit Categories	No Separate Category
Penalties	Up to 4% of Global Revenue	Per Violation ($)	% of Revenue / Fixed	Fixed (up to ?250 Cr)

Contextualising DPDPA: India’s “Third Way”

The operationalisation of the DPDPA through the 2025 Rules signals India’s deliberate entry into the global ecosystem of regulated data sovereignty. India’s position can best be understood by examining three dominant global data governance models:

The European Model: “Rights-Based” Approach

– Key Legislation: GDPR.

– Viewpoint: Privacy is a fundamental human right. This model focuses on comprehensive protection, granular user control, and heavy penalties.

– Impact on DPDPA: The GDPR served as the primary architect for the DPDPA. Concepts such as Data Fiduciary (controller), Data Principal (subject), and the requirement for valid Consent are directly derived from it. However, the DPDPA is notably more concise and business-friendly, aiming for a lower compliance burden than its European counterpart.

The US Model: “Market-Driven” Mosaic

– Key Legislation: No single federal law; relies on state laws like the CCPA and sectoral laws (HIPAA, GLBA).

– Viewpoint: Privacy is a consumer protection issue, focusing on preventing specific harms through targeted regulation.

– Contrast with DPDPA: Unlike the fragmented US approach, India has opted for a singular, comprehensive federal framework applicable across all sectors.

The Authoritarian/Sovereign Model: “Security-First” Approach

– Key Legislation: China’s PIPL, Russia’s Data Laws.

– Viewpoint: Data is a national asset. The focus is on data localisation—keeping data within national borders for state access and national security.

– India’s Shift: Early drafts of the Indian law (2018/2019) leaned toward this model, mandating strict localisation. However, the final DPDPA pivoted to a more pragmatic “trusted geography” approach, permitting cross-border flows unless a jurisdiction is specifically restricted.

India’s Position: A Deliberate Balance

The DPDPA represents a calculated effort to forge a middle path. It avoids the immense compliance complexity of the GDPR and the fragmentation of the US model, while strategically stepping back from the rigid data localisation of the Chinese framework. This “Third Way” is characterised by:

– Simplicity: Unlike the 99 articles of the GDPR, the DPDPA is a concise, principle-based statute.

– Digital-First Approach: It is one of the few laws to explicitly acknowledge the digital nature of modern data, excluding offline records to reduce administrative burden.

– Global Interoperability: By shifting from a “whitelist” (only allowed countries) to a “blacklist” (all allowed except those restricted) for cross-border data transfers, India signals its intent to integrate with the global digital economy while retaining the sovereign power to restrict data flows for geopolitical reasons.

A Dual-Lens Framework

The DPDPA, as operationalised by the 2025 Rules, is designed to be viewed through a dual lens. First, it serves as a mechanism to give effect to the fundamental right to privacy, as affirmed by the Supreme Court in K.S. Puttaswamy v. Union of India (2017). Second, it is structured to be technology-friendly, positioning India as a trusted and attractive destination for the digital economy. By striking a balance between individual rights and national interests, India’s data protection framework aspires to be more than a compliance checklist—it aims to become a cornerstone of its digital future.

[For Part I — The Foundations of Privacy: Evolution of Indian Laws & A Roadmap to DPDPA, click here]

*(This is the second installment in a series. The next part will explore the sectoral impact of the DPDPA, focusing on the obligations for specific industries such as healthcare, fintech, and e-commerce.)*

Myanmar Exclusive: SAVIOR OR SCAMMER? NUG’s Sagaing Fundraising Chief Accused of Siphoning Millions for Luxury as War Refugees Starve

This case highlights a critical vulnerability in the resistance movement: the absence of a robust, independent financial oversight mechanism. As the political crisis in Myanmar seeks international legitimacy, the trust of donors is its most valuable currency. By M. Richard A storm of internal dissent is threatening to shatter the fragile trust in the National […]

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By M. Richard

A storm of internal dissent is threatening to shatter the fragile trust in the National Unity Government’s (NUG) financial networks, as whistleblowers accuse a high-ranking regional fundraiser of running a brazen “half-for-me, half-for-the-cause” scheme. Demands for an independent forensic audit are mounting against one Chaw Suu Han, reportedly the head of the NUGPay fundraising apparatus in Sagaing Region, who stands accused of diverting tens of millions of Kyats—intended for war refugees and frontline fighters—to finance a lavish personal lifestyle.

While Chaw Suu Han is alleged to have publicly solicited donations since 2023 for noble causes such as school construction and communication equipment for local People’s Defence Force (PDF) units, internal documents obtained by the Sagaing Funding Rise Group reveal a stark contradiction. The financial opacity stands in sharp contrast to the dire needs of displaced families in Salingyi township, juxtaposed against the social media display of luxury assets by the official and her family.

Chaw Suu Han, an alleged member of the People’s Revolutionary Aid Force under the [Ministry of Defense of Myanmar’s National Unity Government], has been managing an online pay account. Under the guise of funding humanitarian aid, she has collected millions of Kyats from towns including Salingyi in Sagaing, as well as Gangaw and Myaing in Magway.

*Sagaing has become one of the epicenters of resistance against the military regime.*

‘The Missing Ledger’ and the Amnesty International Grant

In September 2025, facing mounting accusations of financial malfeasance, Chaw Suu Han had issued a defiant but elusive defensive statement, according to a source. She is reported to have stated, “I have published all accounts” and further challenged her accusers, stating, “Want to see the books? Come audit them face-to-face—but you must guarantee your safety,” before announcing, “I have stopped all aid. I am no longer accepting donations.”

However, internal sources contradict these claims. Whistleblowers report that “no comprehensive accounts have been published”, no audit reports submitted to the NUG, and that despite her public statement, she continues to solicit funds under the banner of “People’s Donations.”

Perhaps the most damning allegation involves international funding. Sources allege that since early 2023, Chaw Suu Han allegedly received grants from Amnesty International totaling 3.5 million Kyats per project, titled “Support for Democratic and Human Rights Defenders in Myanmar.” Whistleblowers claim these funds were never utilized for revolutionary purposes, never registered in official donation lists, and were instead funneled directly into her personal coffers.

A Symptom of Systemic Rot

Chaw Suu Han’s case is not an isolated incident; rather, it is a stark symptom of what critics describe as deep-seated corruption endemic to the NUG’s financial structures, said a source.

Allegations have been hurled at may others. Kyaw Moe Tun (NUG Rep to UN): Allegedly misappropriated $2.6M from the Myanmar UN account, paying only $300k in dues while the rest vanished while Chaw Suu Han allegedly collected millions in donations with unclear accounts and missing supplies.

Daw Kyi Pyar was the Permanent Secretary of the Prime Minister’s Office for Myanmar’s shadow National Unity Government (NUG), serving until her resignation in February 2026. She was embroiled in a major controversy starting in November 2025 over allegations of corruption, nepotism, and bullying, often described by critics as running her office as a “family business” She is also accused of appointing husband and nephew to the Presidential Office; of embezzlement and purchasing million-dollar jewelry. Another leader Pencilo fled to the US under the guise of “revolution,” buying property and opening businesses, labeled a “Revolutionary Merchant” while Chaw Suu Han, claimed 3.5 million Kyats per project donation for refugees, yet the funds remain unaccounted for. |

PM Mahn Win Khaing Than has been accused of inaction regarding the Daw Kyi Pyar case, shielding “his own people.” Chaw Suu Han, in the meanwhile, never investigated or held accountable by the NUG; instead packaged by some media as a “Revolutionary Model”, said a source who did not want to be identified.

As one internal critic reportedly noted, “When high-ranking officials weaponize ‘security’ and ‘political sensitivity’ to shield graft, the grassroots is forced into a predatory scramble to ‘grab and run’ as the only means of survival.”

The Response & The Silence

When approached for comment by journalists, Chaw Suu Han reiterated, “I have published all accounts,” but failed to provide a public link to these records. She continued to challenge critics to “audit face-to-face” while citing safety concerns.

Meanwhile, the [NUG Prime Minister’s Office](https://www.nugmyanmar.org/) has maintained a wall of silence. Since September 2025, complainants have repeatedly contacted the office via email, open letters, and Messenger demanding:

– An independent audit of Chaw Suu Han’s funding sources and usage.

– Full disclosure of all foreign funds received and their specific purposes.

To date, the NUG has not responded.

Local citizens who have reported her financial opacity have faced threats and intimidation. Due to her regional influence and alleged protection by certain officials, the voices of whistleblowers have been systematically silenced.

This case highlights a critical vulnerability in the resistance movement: the absence of a robust, independent financial oversight mechanism. As the political crisis in Myanmar seeks international legitimacy, the trust of donors is its most valuable currency. Without transparency, the risk of systemic corruption threatens to erode the very foundation of the cause.

Such actions, if found to be true through legal process, violate not only the laws of Myanmar but also the sacred duty of loyalty to the people. If the NUG fails to act, critics warn, the morale of the resistance—and the flow of life-saving donations—may soon dry up entirely.

The post Myanmar Exclusive: SAVIOR OR SCAMMER? NUG’s Sagaing Fundraising Chief Accused of Siphoning Millions for Luxury as War Refugees Starve first appeared on The Frontier Manipur.

Climate Extremes Batter Hindu Kush Himalaya, Northeast Feels the Heat

ICIMOD report links rising disasters to funding gaps as Manipur reels under hailstorms, floods, and landslides. Mountain ecosystems and rural livelihoods at tipping point By Salam Rajesh The Hindu Kush Himalaya region faces escalating climate risks, including glacial melt, biodiversity loss, and extreme weather events, posing severe threats to ecosystems, livelihoods, and the well-being of […]

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ICIMOD report links rising disasters to funding gaps as Manipur reels under hailstorms, floods, and landslides. Mountain ecosystems and rural livelihoods at tipping point

By Salam Rajesh

The Hindu Kush Himalaya region faces escalating climate risks, including glacial melt, biodiversity loss, and extreme weather events, posing severe threats to ecosystems, livelihoods, and the well-being of billions dependent on its resources.

This ominous assessment is an emancipation of studies carried out by the Kathmandu-based International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD), as is presented in its publication ‘Climate Finance Synthesis Report: Needs, Flows and Gaps in the HKH countries (2025)’.

The Hindu Kush Himalaya (HKH) is one of the world’s most climate-vulnerable regions, facing growing threats from extreme weather events like glacial lake outburst floods (GLOFs), landslides, droughts, floods, forest fires, and intense monsoons.

The frequency, intensity, and duration of these events are increasing, exacerbating risks to ecosystems, food security, and livelihoods, particularly in rural and mountainous areas according to the ICIMOD studies.

The report estimates that the Hindu Kush Himalaya region requires approximately USD 12.065 trillion from year 2020 to 2050 for financing climate mitigation and adaptation measures, amounting to an annual average of a staggering USD 768.68 billion.

According to the Climate Risk Index (CRI) 2025 Report, floods, storms, and heat waves has caused significant global fatalities and economic losses, with floods alone affecting half of those impacted and storms accounting for 56% of economic damages to the tune of USD 2.33 trillion.

The ICIMOD report stressed that sectors crucial to the region, such as adaptation, agriculture, water management, and disaster risk reduction, remain significantly underfunded despite their critical importance.

The report assessed that limited private sector engagement, insufficient institutional capacity, fragmented policy landscapes, and weak data infrastructure further compound these challenges.

Several Indian States located within the HKH region had felt the impact of weather and climate extremes in recent years, incurring huge losses and damages to human lives, infrastructures, and to the natural environment.

From the damaging GLOF events in Himachal Pradesh and Uttarakhand to cloud bursts in Sikkim, massive floods in Assam, and devastating hailstorms in Nagaland and Manipur, nature’s fury had not spared anyone as such.

Manipur in recent years is seeing unprecedented scenarios of weather extremes, resulting in bursts of rains in short duration, flash floods, landslides, lightning strikes, and the damaging hailstorms.

Homes, agricultural fields and crops have not been spared, rendering tremendous economic losses for many who are in the marginalized sectors – peasants and agricultural farmers.

On Sunday (15 March) many parts of the State – Senapati, Imphal West, Kakching, Bishnupur, Tengnoupal – were hit by a fierce hailstorm ferried by a strong wind that blew off roofs and flatten houses.

Quite recently, farmers in Bishnupur District were left thunderstruck when a fierce hailstorm wreak havoc with their vegetable crops, totally flatten and battered beyond redemption, while tin roofing were punctured with multiple holes as if strapped by machine gun fire.

To address some of these pressing issues, the ICIMOD report recommended enhancing regional and global advocacy for HKH-specific climate funding, strengthening national and regional climate finance strategies, improving policy coherence, and developing robust financial mechanisms and innovative market-based instruments.

The report suggests that this could be achieved by building strong national institutional capacities and governance frameworks to manage and mobilize climate finance effectively.

It suggests leveraging innovative financial instruments, such as green and blue bonds, debt-for-climate swaps, and voluntary carbon markets, tailored specifically for mountain economies, to achieve the stated goals.

While suggesting urgent collective action and targeted financial investment as critical for building climate resilience, safeguarding ecosystems, and supporting sustainable development for current and future generations in the HKH region, the report emphasized that improving data infrastructure, climate risk assessments, and reporting systems to attract investments and enhance accountability require priority.

Without mincing words, the report points out that the challenges faced by the mountain regions, such as climate vulnerability, environmental degradation, and socio-economic disparities, are often overlooked in national, regional and global planning.

At the same time, the report fairly warns that with global warming projected to exceed the 1.5 degrees Celsius threshold by the year 2027 (WMO, 2025) – hardly a year from now – there is a pressing need for urgent climate action efforts to address key risks in mountain regions, with several structural challenges, such as lack of climate financing, hindering such efforts from attaining the requisite scope and scale.

Describing mountains as hotspots of climate change, the report extols that as in all other mountain regions of the world, in the HKH region too, the observed changes are increasing temperatures, changing seasonal weather patterns, reductions in snow persistence at low elevations, loss of glacier mass, increased permafrost thaw and incidence of glacial lake disasters.

Even as wars (Ukraine-Russia/Iran-Israel) escalates deaths and destructions, subsequently inflicting huge loss and damage, climate and weather extremes too are causing almost an equal amount of loss and damage as nature unleashes its fury left and right.

The massive wildfires in Australia, Europe and in the United States recently are but the tip of the iceberg in recent climate concerns, only worsening by the year. Glacial retreats and formation of glacial lakes in the HKH mountains are the proverbial warnings before catastrophe.

This is where rational suggestions such as those coming up from ICIMOD is a fair indication that States must come up with climate financing mechanism urgently to avoid climate and weather extreme disasters in the very near future within the HKH region.

Pakistan, India, Nepal, Bhutan and Bangladesh are in the red zones of climate and weather extremes, and hence actions require to be initiated soon enough. Even small nondescript States like Manipur and Nagaland are beginning to reel under unprecedented weather extremes in recent times.

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Climate Extremes Batter Hindu Kush Himalaya, Northeast Feels the Heat

The post Climate Extremes Batter Hindu Kush Himalaya, Northeast Feels the Heat first appeared on The Frontier Manipur.

ICIMOD report links rising disasters to funding gaps as Manipur reels under hailstorms, floods, and landslides. Mountain ecosystems and rural livelihoods at tipping point

By Salam Rajesh

The report assessed that limited private sector engagement, insufficient institutional capacity, fragmented policy landscapes, and weak data infrastructure further compound these challenges.

Homes, agricultural fields and crops have not been spared, rendering tremendous economic losses for many who are in the marginalized sectors – peasants and agricultural farmers.

The report suggests that this could be achieved by building strong national institutional capacities and governance frameworks to manage and mobilize climate finance effectively.

The post Climate Extremes Batter Hindu Kush Himalaya, Northeast Feels the Heat first appeared on The Frontier Manipur.

Loktak Fishers Observe International Rivers Day

Champu Khangpok residents remove plastic and waste from Yangoi Achouba River, highlighting pollution threats to Loktak Lake. Community action underscores urgent need to restore the polluted river draining through Imphal into the Ramsar-listed lake. TFM Desk As is observed every year on the 14th of March in commemorating the importance of rivers in sustaining human […]

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TFM Desk

As is observed every year on the 14th of March in commemorating the importance of rivers in sustaining human lives and for the planetary health, Loktak fishers residing at Champu Khangpok Floating Island Village observed the day with Yangoi Achouba (Nambul) river cleanup.

Year 2026’s theme on ‘Protect Rivers, Protect People’ signify the intricate relationship rivers share with humans in sustaining lives and livelihoods on the one hand while sustaining healthy environment that can support all life forms that primarily depend on freshwater river ecosystem for their existence.

The Yangoi Achouba Turel, better known as Nambul River to the general mass, is one of the few important rivers to drain directly into the freshwater Loktak Lake – a Ramsar site.

The health of Nambul River signify the status of Loktak Lake, wherewith the current condition of the river being described as pitiful is fairly degraded with high pollution levels implying poor health status of the lake.

The river Nambul which flows through the densely populated Imphal city carry high pollutant loads and direct sewerage discharge from urban settlements that are deposited into Loktak Lake continuously every year without check.

The fishing families of Champu Khangpok floating island village, situated in the midst of the lake, had taken upon themselves the onus of organizing river cleanup of Nambul River stretch from Liklai Karong up to where the river flows directly into the lake on every occasion of environmental events.

Considering the large quantity of plastic and other domestic wastes carried by Nambul River and deposited directly into Loktak, Champu Khangpok resident Oinam Rajen Singh described the situation has bad and detrimental to the overall health of the lake.

Citing encroachments, pollution, siltation, weed infestation and eutrophication as major issues in the lake presently, Rajen called upon the relevant government agencies to address these issues on priority basis, otherwise the lake fares to degrade and degenerate each year, ultimately coming to the undesired condition when the water of Loktak will become useless for human use while possibility causing species decline in the lake.

The International Rivers Day is observed throughout the world to focus attention on rivers as vitally important for healthy ecosystems while sustaining lives and livelihoods for thousands of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs) who depend entirely on rivers for everything in their lives.

The day also focuses on the negative anthropogenic activities like dam construction and diversion of rivers for ‘developmental’ projects that are highly detrimental to the health of the life-providing rivers.

The day also calls for letting rivers flow free without any obstruction, and to regain the passage of migratory fish species like salmon and trout that signify healthy river ecosystems while providing resources for local communities in sustaining their lives.

The day’s observation was supported by the Directorate of Environment & Climate Change, Government of Manipur and Bishnupur-based non-governmental organization People’s Resources Development Association (PRDA).

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Digital Personal Data Protection Act (DPDPA) 2023 Series: Part I — The Foundations of Privacy: Evolution of Indian Laws & A Roadmap to DPDPA

This article, the first in a series, traces the evolution of privacy in India from a fragmented common law concept to the fundamental right enshrined in the 2017 Puttaswamy judgment. It then provides a comprehensive overview of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, highlighting its key definitions, salient features, and how it establishes a […]

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Lt Col Ujjual Abhishek Jha, Retd

Introduction

The enactment of the Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023 (DPDPA) marks a transformative milestone in India’s journey toward a robust and accountable digital economy. The Act is designed to operationalize the Right to Privacy, affirmed as a fundamental right by the Supreme Court in the landmark K.S. Puttaswamy Judgment (2017). By establishing a comprehensive, consent-centric framework for processing digital personal data, the DPDPA empowers individuals with meaningful rights over their information, thereby aligning India’s data governance with global privacy standards.

The Concept of Privacy in India: A Pre-DPDPA Perspective

Prior to the DPDPA, the concept of privacy in India was not anchored in a single, overarching statute but was instead shaped through fragmented judicial interpretations and sector-specific regulations. This patchwork approach left the judiciary grappling with the dual challenge of defining the scope of privacy rights while balancing them against national imperatives like economic growth and digital inclusion.

The watershed moment for this evolution was the large-scale digitization of public services—most notably the Aadhaar program—which catalyzed a paradigm shift. The understanding of privacy expanded from a notion of physical autonomy to a broader right of control over one’s own data. In the contemporary context, Indian jurisprudence now views privacy through a dual lens:

As a Fundamental Value: Recognizing privacy as an intrinsic and inalienable human right.
As an Active Value: Acknowledging privacy as a critical prerequisite for fostering innovation, building trust in the digital ecosystem, and safeguarding other fundamental freedoms.

Cornerstones of Privacy: Milestones & Governing Laws
Before the DPDPA, India’s privacy landscape was a mosaic of constitutional principles and sectoral rules. The key pillars were:

The Constitutional Keystone: K.S. Puttaswamy V. Union Of India (2017). This unanimous verdict by a nine-judge Constitution Bench of the Supreme Court serves as the bedrock of modern Indian privacy law.

– The Landmark Ruling: The Court unanimously held that the Right to Privacy is an intrinsic facet of the Right to Life and Personal Liberty guaranteed under Article 21 of the Constitution.
– The Enduring Impact: The judgment established a rigorous, three-fold test to validate any state-imposed intrusion into privacy, mandating that such action must satisfy:
– Legality: The presence of a validly enacted law.
– Necessity: A legitimate state interest or aim.
– Proportionality: A rational and proportionate link between the means employed and the object sought to be achieved.

The Pre-Existing Legal Framework Governing Privacy

The Information Technology Act, 2000 (IT Act). For years, the IT Act served as the primary statutory mechanism for data protection in India, functioning largely through Section 43A.

– The SPDI Rules (2011): Framed under the IT Act, the Sensitive Personal Data or Information Rules mandated that corporate entities implement and maintain reasonable security practices and procedures.
– Inherent Limitations: The Rules were confined to corporate bodies and applied only to a narrow category of “sensitive” data, leaving a vast expanse of “personal” data—and the public sector—outside any regulatory ambit.

Sector-Specific Regulations. Pending a central law, sectoral regulators filled the void by imposing privacy and confidentiality mandates within their domains:

– Financial Sector: The Reserve Bank of India (RBI) enforced stringent data localization norms and confidentiality requirements for payments ecosystem data.
– Telecom Sector: The Unified License agreement imposed binding confidentiality clauses on telecom service providers concerning subscriber details.
– Healthcare Sector: Patient confidentiality was primarily governed by professional ethics regulations, such as the Indian Medical Council Regulations, 2002, alongside draft legislation like the Digital Information Security in Healthcare Act (DISHA), which remained in a nascent stage.

*Concept and Existing Privacy Laws in India*

The Imperative for a Comprehensive Framework – The inadequacies of the IT Act’s Section 43A—particularly the absence of an independent regulatory authority and weak enforcement mechanisms—underscored the urgent need for a dedicated, omnibus data protection law. This legislative journey commenced with the Justice B.N. Srikrishna Committee (2017), which produced the first draft of the Personal Data Protection Bill. Subsequent iterations in 2018, 2019, and 2022 were deliberated, debated, and ultimately withdrawn, paving the way for the passage of the DPDPA in August 2023. The subsequent notification of the DPDP Rules, 2025 translated the Act’s mandate into actionable procedures, detailing governance structures, compliance thresholds, and implementation timelines.

Overview of the DPDPA 2023 – The DPDPA 2023 establishes a comprehensive regime for the processing of digital personal data within India, including data originally collected in non-digital form and later digitized. It possesses extraterritorial applicability, binding entities outside India that process data in connection with offering goods or services to Data Principals within India. The Act applies uniformly to public and private entities, with specific exemptions for notified state functions, research, and certain low-risk processing activities.

Key Definitions:

– Data Principal: The individual to whom the personal data pertains, with special provisions for children and persons with disabilities.
– Data Fiduciary: The entity that determines the purpose and means of processing. A subclass, Significant Data Fiduciaries (SDFs), are subject to heightened compliance obligations due to the scale and sensitivity of their operations.
– Other Key Entities: The framework also defines the roles of Data Processors, Consent Managers, and establishes the Data Protection Board of India (DPBI) as the primary adjudicatory and enforcement authority.

Salient Features of the DPDPA 2023

– Consent and Legitimate Uses: Consent must be free, specific, informed, unconditional, and unambiguous, with a clear affirmative action. Notices must be provided in plain and simple language, including translations in any language specified in the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution. The Act also identifies certain “legitimate uses” that permit data processing without explicit consent (e.g., for specified state functions, medical emergencies, employment purposes, and legal compliance).

– Empowering Data Principals: The Act enshrines foundational rights for individuals, including the rights to access information, seek correction and completion of data, demand erasure, and have access to effective grievance redressal mechanisms. A novel provision allows a Data Principal to nominate another individual to exercise these rights in the event of their death or incapacity.

– Safeguarding Children’s Data: The Act imposes strict prohibitions on tracking, behavioural monitoring, or targeted advertising** directed at children. Processing of children’s data is conditional upon obtaining verifiable parental consent, with provisions for future relaxations to be specified through rules.

– Enshrining Duties of Data Principals: In a significant move, the Act imposes specific duties on individuals, prohibiting them from filing frivolous or false complaints, furnishing false particulars, or impersonating others.

– Penalties for Non-Compliance: The Act introduces a stringent financial penalty regime, with monetary fines reaching up to ?250 Crore Per Contravention. Higher penalty slabs are prescribed for particularly egregious violations, such as data security breaches and non-compliance with provisions relating to children’s data.

India’s erstwhile privacy framework, anchored in the Information Technology Act, 2000 (amended in 2008), proved fragmented and ill-suited for the digital age. Provisions like Sections 43A and 72A offered limited recourse, primarily focusing on compensation for negligence and penalties for unauthorized disclosure, but fell short of establishing a holistic framework of data rights. The Digital Personal Data Protection Act, 2023, therefore, represents a pivotal and long-overdue shift. As India’s first comprehensive data privacy law, it regulates the entire lifecycle of digital personal data, embedding principles of user consent, data minimization, and purpose limitation, while granting citizens enforceable rights and establishing the Data Protection Board as a robust oversight mechanism.

(Lt Col Ujjual Abhishek Jha, Retd, is a Certified Data Privacy Professional and Strategic & GeoPolitical Advisor. In addition, his specialised fields includes Intelligence, Insider Threat Management, Financial Crime Investigation and Geopolitical Risk Analysis with experience of two decades in the field.)

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Deepak @Ibungo, Lalambung Takhellambam Leikai clarifies

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Audience Paradox: The Curious Case of Cinema in Manipur

Just as cinema in India saw family dramas—once dismissed—become its most powerful connector with audiences, a similar shift in storytelling is now being observed in Manipur’s film industry. By Akee Sorokhaibam There was a time when a curious trend could be observed in the way people talked about cinema in India. Many viewers were increasingly […]

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Just as cinema in India saw family dramas—once dismissed—become its most powerful connector with audiences, a similar shift in storytelling is now being observed in Manipur’s film industry.

By Akee Sorokhaibam

There was a time when a curious trend could be observed in the way people talked about cinema in India. Many viewers were increasingly drawn to imported films rather than Hindi cinema. Watching Hindi films was sometimes treated as an insult to one’s cinematic intelligence. Foreign films were seen as more sophisticated, more artistic, and therefore more worthy of appreciation.

Yet cinema history often moves in cycles. The moment Hindi cinema began reconnecting with audiences through emotionally engaging family stories, the same kind of storytelling that had once been dismissed started drawing large audiences back to homegrown films. What was earlier mocked as “mere family drama” suddenly became a powerful bridge between filmmakers and viewers.

Today, a somewhat similar conversation can be heard in Manipur.

Among certain sections of the cinema intelligentsia, a common criticism is that Manipuri films are mostly family-oriented and lack variety. According to this view, the industry seems trapped in domestic melodrama, repeating the same emotional structures again and again.

To some extent, this observation is not entirely wrong. Many films produced locally do revolve around family relationships and social conflicts within the household.

But there is also a practical reason for this. These are the films that bring audiences into theatres. These are the films that manage to recover investments and sustain the livelihoods of actors, technicians, and producers. In a small film industry like Manipur’s, survival often depends on what sells.

What makes Manipuri cinema unique, however, is the way it has survived against difficult circumstances. There was a period when screening Hindi films in the state was banned by underground groups. This created an unusual situation where local filmmakers had to fill the vacuum almost entirely on their own. The industry shifted heavily into the digital video era, producing films with limited resources but strong local engagement. In many ways, Manipuri cinema became one of the few regional industries in India that survived largely on its own audience and cultural context.

At the same time, it would be inaccurate to say that Manipuri cinema has not attempted other forms of storytelling.

The works of Aribam Syam Sharma stand as an important example. Films such as Imagi Ningthem and Ishanou travelled widely across international film festivals and earned global recognition. Imagi Ningthem won the Grand Prix at the Nantes Three Continents Festival, bringing unprecedented international attention to Manipuri cinema. These films are admired for their quiet storytelling, cultural depth, and strong cinematic language.

In many ways, they represent precisely the kind of thoughtful and artistically ambitious cinema that critics and intellectual viewers often claim to desire.

Yet the irony is difficult to ignore. While these films received admiration on the international festival circuit and from critics, they did not always receive the same level of support from audiences at home.

Interestingly, the story of Manipuri cinema itself has attracted attention from outside the state. The documentary Fried Fish, Chicken Soup and a Premiere Show, directed by Mumbai-based filmmaker Mamta Murthy, won the National Film Award for Best Arts/Cultural Film. The film follows a Manipuri film crew during the making of a movie and uses that journey to explore the struggles, passion, and resilience of filmmakers in Manipur. The fact that outsiders felt compelled to document and celebrate this small industry says something about the cultural significance of Manipuri cinema.

And yet, within our own viewing culture, the relationship with our cinema often remains conflicted.

We often say we want better films, more diverse subjects, and more serious storytelling. But when such films are made, they frequently struggle to find viewers. Meanwhile, the very films we criticize for being “too family-oriented” are the ones that continue to sustain the industry.

Perhaps the real issue is not the lack of variety in Manipuri cinema. Perhaps the real issue is the gap between the cinema we claim to value and the cinema we are actually willing to support.

And if Manipuri films are often family-based or domestic, it simply means they are stories built around love—between parents and children, husbands and wives, friends and communities. If cinema reflects life, and life is held together by such bonds, then perhaps the question is simple: what is really wrong with showing love?

(Akee Sorokhaibam is a occasional filmmaker and a hardcore cinephile who breathes behind silver screens.)

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Strengthen Protection for Migratory Freshwater Fish: IUCN

Global conservation body urges expanded species listings and stronger international cooperation ahead of CMS COP15 in Brazil. Declining fish populations, dams, pollution and climate change threaten river ecosystems and livelihoods worldwide. By Salam Rajesh Migratory freshwater fishes remain vastly under-represented in the CMS appendices despite facing severe declines and high extinction risk across the globe. […]

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By Salam Rajesh

Migratory freshwater fishes remain vastly under-represented in the CMS appendices despite facing severe declines and high extinction risk across the globe.

This critical assessment is the hard statement of the IUCN position paper of the fifteenth meeting of the Conference of the Parties (COP15) to the Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS) to be held from the 23rd to the 29th later this month at Campo Grande in Brazil.

The document (Doc.25.6.1) to be presented at COP15 and the Global Assessment of Migratory Freshwater Fishes underscores the urgent need to strengthen international cooperation and protection for migratory freshwater fish species globally.

Only a small fraction of known migratory freshwater fish species is currently covered by CMS listings, even as fish species worldwide face acute challenges with their habitats threatened by dams, pollution, water abstraction, climate change, overfishing and other undesired human interventions.

Highlighting this critical conservation gap, IUCN stresses that the CMS can help address these issues by expanding species listings and coordinated actions at basin scale across the seven continents.

On the basis of this urgency, IUCN called on all Parties to the Convention to support improved data, baselines and specified proposals targeted at enhancing freshwater fish inclusion and conservation under the Convention, thereto recognizing their essential roles for river ecosystem health, food security and livelihoods worldwide.

Stating its stand on the matter, IUCN committed to supporting CMS Parties with scientific data and advice on migratory freshwater fish species and their conservation.

Making its position clear on communities and livelihoods, IUCN said it strongly supported the proposal from the eighth meeting of the Sessional Committee of the Scientific Council (ScC-SC8) in establishing a dedicated working group that would deal with the strategic issues related to interactions between communities and the CMS listed species (in reference to: UNEP/CMS/COP15/Doc.28.4/Add.1).

IUCN suggested that COP15 needs to amend the text to specifically focus on issues related to ‘human–wildlife conflict and coexistence’ which are addressed by various CMS frameworks, where a multi-stakeholder working group is crucial in promoting alignment and coordination across these initiatives.

The suggestion further stressed that by leveraging the impartial support of the IUCN SSC (Species Survival Commission) Human–Wildlife Conflict & Coexistence Specialist Group, the proposed working group would help Parties prevent and mitigate the impacts of human–wildlife conflict on CMS-listed species while promoting coexistence.

On Transfrontier Conservation Areas, IUCN said it supported the adoption of the draft decisions on Transfrontier Conservation Areas for Migratory Species (COP15/Doc.28.3) and that it stood ready to assist Parties through its technical expertise and global experience in transboundary conservation.

This support is reflected in outcomes of the Forum event held at the 8th IUCN World Conservation Congress (October 2025) which produced the report “Transboundary Conservation Around the World: Ecologically and Culturally Well-connected Landscapes and Seascapes”.

The report highlighted two key priorities directly relevant to CMS implementation. These are: (1) Emphasize moving from planning to action, harmonizing laws and management across borders, integrating connectivity for all species and ecosystems, and applying conflict-sensitive strategies, and (2) Long-term funding and multi-sector collaboration critical for sustained success.

IUCN therefore encouraged Parties to advance practical, cooperative measures that would strengthen connectivity for migratory species across national boundaries.

Touching on the subject of light pollution, IUCN welcomed the CMS draft decision on light pollution (COP15/Doc.28.7) and said it supported its emphasis on consolidating and disseminating the CMS International Light Pollution Guidelines for Migratory Species.

The draft decision recognized light pollution as a growing, cross-sectoral threat to migratory species and ecosystems, reflecting a mature phase of CMS work in which the priority shifts from developing new guidance to scaling up implementation, outreach and uptake by Parties and stakeholders.

Welcoming the conclusion of the Scientific Council that no immediate amendments to the guidelines are required, IUCN suggested that efforts should focus on awareness-raising, capacity building, and integration into policy and planning processes.

An interesting aspect of its position paper is with reference to the conservation implications of animal culture and social complexity.

IUCN welcomed the document COP15/Doc.28.13 on Conservation Implication of Animal Culture and Social Complexity which recognized its alignment with IUCN Resolution 8.112 (2025) in planning for strengthening the preservation of biodiversity through the use of Longevity Conservation approaches to ensure naturally age-structured populations of species.

Scientific evidence demonstrates that older individuals in animal populations often perform disproportionately important ecological, demographic, and social roles, serving as repositories of ecological knowledge, behavioural traditions, and socially learned strategies that enhance survival, reproduction, and population resilience – concepts that closely linked to emerging global work on animal culture and social learning under CMS.

IUCN appreciated the positive dialogue with the CMS Secretariat on the topic of animal culture and social complexity.

In collaboration with the CMS Secretariat and the Chair of the CMS Expert Group on Animal Culture, and through the IUCN CEESP-SSC Conservation of Animal Culture Task Force, IUCN sought in advancing the integration of animal culture into conservation policy and practice.

Complementing CMS’s focus on migratory species, IUCN promoted a holistic approach across migratory and non-migratory species, inclusive of traditional knowledge and Indigenous perspectives.

IUCN’s push for protection of migratory freshwater fish species is viewed in perspective of the concerns on rapid depletion of wetlands due to the primary reason of human interference in many aspects including infrastructure developments and reclamation of wetlands for different activities, thereby threatening fish populations and their habitats.

Dams across rivers have long been one of the contentious reasons for depleting migratory freshwater fish fishes like salmon and trout, triggering extensive tension between developmental agencies and the IPLCs (Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities), primarily over resources and livelihoods.

In this scenario, an isolated State like Manipur in India’s far northeast is no exception with the contentious Ithai Barrage for the 105 megawatt Loktak hydroelectric power project disrupting migratory freshwater fish routes and causing species loss upstream of the barrage, a reason that is cited as inducing economic loss and threats to livelihoods for thousands of fishing families within the Manipur River basin.

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Checkmate On The Fossil Fuel Dialogues

Donald Trump’s aggression in the Middle East reflects the West’s intended move to dominate the world economy which in other words can be equated to Nazi Germany’s campaign to subjugate the world militarily and politically with dominance over agricultural, mineral and oil rich countries By Salam Rajesh The Unites States’ interference in the Middle East […]

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By Salam Rajesh

The Unites States’ interference in the Middle East is largely seen by observers as a premeditated campaign to consolidate its hold on the oil rich nations which the western states require to sustain and bolster their global geopolitical dominance – politically and economically.

The United Nations has since been in the thick of heated debates over ending fossil fuel resourcing, exploitation and production as a means to address critical concerns on global warming and climate extremes that otherwise are threatening humanity and the planet with dire consequences if actions are not taken up immediately.

The call to reduce and halt fossil fuel use extensively has been the centre-piece of extended dialogues in several of the climate conferences around the world – Belem, Abu Dhabi, Baku, Kunming, Montreal, Paris, Tokyo, and many more.

Yet, the dialogues have remained stuck in most instances, with world leaders like Donald Trump kicking aside these dialogues as a ‘waste of time’. The United States had recently moved away from these dialogues by distancing itself from the UN functionaries, with even Trump saying that climate change is a ‘lie’.

In recent climate conferences there were heated debates between fossil fuel lobbyists and those suggesting reducing and limiting fossil fuel use globally.

The COP30 at Belem in Brazil, held in November last year, came up with a statement on transitioning away from fossil fuels, supported by over 80 countries including Australia, Austria, Belgium, Cambodia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, Denmark, Fiji, Finland, Ireland, Jamaica, Kenya, Luxembourg, Marshall Islands, Mexico, Micronesia, Nepal, Netherlands, Panama, Spain, Slovenia, Vanuatu and Tuvalu.

The declaration is grounded in the scientific truth that fossil fuels are the primary driver of the climate crisis, and subsequently the Government of Colombia, in alliance with the Government of the Netherlands, announced the first international conference on just transition away from fossil fuels.

The conference proposed to be held at Santa Marta, Colombia, on 28 April later this year is projected as a broad intergovernmental, multi-sectoral platform, complementary to the UNFCCC (United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change), and designed to identify legal, economic, and social pathways for phasing out fossil fuels.

The proposed climate conference seeks in the deliberation on financial and trade mechanisms, macroeconomic challenges, fossil fuel subsidy phase out, renewable energy acceleration, economic diversification, and labor reconversion.

The Belem climate conference had some immediate results, such as, following the leaders’ summit at Belem, Netherlands’ Prime Minister went to Aruba to announce the closure of the oil refinery with a Dutch green subsidy fund. As of 2030, the Netherlands will prohibit electricity production with coal.

The atoll nation of Tuvalu, which is currently facing total submergence due to rising sea level as an after-effect of global warming, raised the urgency of climate action while noting that achieving the climate goals required international cooperation.

Tuvalu was one of the first countries to call for the development of a fossil fuel treaty, offering the clearest pathway for ‘a negotiated, fair and forcible transition away from coal, oil and gas’. The International Court of Justice, too, confirmed that acting in line with climate science is a legal obligation.

The proposed treaty process complements the Paris Climate agreement by addressing fossil fuel phase out directly.

Urging global community to support the proposed treaty, one of Tuvalu ministers called out that, “We are already drowning, but we will not give up and we will never give up. We are headed towards a point of no return and we need to do something (fast)”.

The Belem conference did emphasize that phasing out fossil fuels requires substantial growth in renewable energy, which is in other words is the energy transition that is necessary to address climate goals and to achieve stable economies, and overall security.

Meanwhile, even as these heated dialogues are doing the rounds in contrasting political scenario, climate watch groups are coming up with findings that are warnings of dire consequences if actions on climate mitigation and adaptation processes are not initiated post-haste.

The Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) noted that ‘a large region of the subtropical and the northeast North Atlantic, including the Norwegian Sea, had the warmest sea surface temperatures (SSTs) on record for the time of year’.

The SSTs were higher than the average in large parts of the North Pacific Ocean as well and were near normal in central and eastern Pacific Ocean, because of the prevailing weak La Nina conditions, C3S said.

In the Southern Hemisphere, where it is summer season now, temperatures in southern South America, Northern Africa, most of Australia and Antarctica were much higher than the normal. This lead to extensive and intense heat waves in many regions and even triggered devastating wildfires, the climate watch group said.

The excessive heat that generated wildfires in southeastern Australia in the second week of January earlier this year were made five times more likely and 1.6 degrees Celsius hotter due to global warming and consequent climate change, according to an analysis by the World Weather Attribution (WWA) consortium.

The cold snaps on land did not have much of an impact on sea surface temperatures in the Northern Hemisphere, especially close to Europe and North America. The average sea surface temperatures between the latitudes 60°S–60°N was 20.68°C was the fourth highest average SST on record.

All said and done, the unprecedented winter storm that lashed parts of the United States, including New York, earlier this year is a fair warning that climate extremes are becoming more extreme by the year.

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Read more / Original news source: https://thefrontiermanipur.com/checkmate-on-the-fossil-fuel-dialogues/

Building Scientific Temper for Viksit Universities in Manipur

Beyond Infrastructure: Why Intellectual Courage and Evidence-Based Inquiry Must Anchor Higher Education in the State By Dr Maibam Birla Singh National Science Day, observed every year on 28 February, commemorates the discovery of the Raman Effect by Nobel Laureate Sir C.V. Raman in 1928. His ground-breaking work demonstrated that when light passes through a transparent […]

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Beyond Infrastructure: Why Intellectual Courage and Evidence-Based Inquiry Must Anchor Higher Education in the State

By Dr Maibam Birla Singh

National Science Day, observed every year on 28 February, commemorates the discovery of the Raman Effect by Nobel Laureate Sir C.V. Raman in 1928. His ground-breaking work demonstrated that when light passes through a transparent substance, a small fraction of it scatters with a change in wavelength, revealing crucial information about molecular structure. The discovery not only earned India its first Nobel Prize in the sciences in 1930, but also ignited confidence that world-class scientific research could emerge from Indian soil.

Science in pre-independence India developed under severe institutional and resource constraints, yet it produced work of global significance through the dedication of a few visionary scholars. Colonial policies limited funding, infrastructure and autonomy for advanced research but Indian scientists built a culture of inquiry within universities and laboratories such as the Indian Association for the cultivation of science. In this intellectually vibrant but materially modest environment, C. V. Raman made his landmark discovery of the Raman Effect in 1928, demonstrating that high-quality fundamental research could emerge from India despite colonial limitations. Raman’s work, which earned him the Nobel Prize in Physics, became a powerful symbol of India’s scientific potential and self-reliance. His discovery not only advanced molecular spectroscopy worldwide but also inspired the growth of indigenous scientific institutions and research traditions that later supported India’s post-independence scientific expansion. The true legacy of the Raman Effect lies beyond physics or chemistry. It represents a mindset curiosity-driven inquiry, independent thinking, and faith in the power of reason. Working in pre-independence India with modest resources, Raman proved that scientific excellence does not begin with infrastructure; it begins with intellectual courage.

This message holds special relevance for Manipur and its emerging universities. As higher education institutions in the state continue to develop amidst financial and infrastructural constraints, National Science Day offers a moment for reflection. The future of universities in Manipur will not be determined solely by the scale of their buildings or laboratories, but by the strength of their scientific temper. Scientific temper, a value enshrined in the Constitution of India, refers to a culture of questioning, rational analysis, evidence-based reasoning, and openness to new ideas. For emerging institutions such as Dhanamanjuri University and other universities/colleges across the state, cultivating this mind set is foundational.

Manipur is widely recognized as a powerhouse of Indian sports. Thanks to our sport players and their outstanding achievements on national and international stages fill us with immense pride. The dedication of players and coaches rightly earns them rousing hero’s welcomes when they return home, often celebrated as true sons and daughters of the soil. This collective enthusiasm reflects the strong public support that sports enjoy in our society. However, a similar culture of recognition has not yet fully developed for achievements in academics and scientific research. Success in education and science is too often viewed as an individual accomplishment rather than a shared societal milestone. If we are to build a strong scientific temper in both universities and the wider community, this mindset must evolve. Universities have a crucial role to play in elevating and publicly celebrating intellectual and research achievements, thereby fostering a culture where excellence in science and education is valued, visible, and collectively owned by society.

In Manipur, a region marked by ecological sensitivity and socio-economic complexity, universities are uniquely positioned to confront real and immediate challenges. Beyond delivering higher education, universities must be guided by a clear vision, mission, and mandate that prioritize region-specific problems while generating solutions with global relevance, truly moving from local to global. Critical concerns such as the conservation of Loktak Lake, sustainable wetland management, climate-resilient agriculture, water quality improvement, renewable energy deployment, and responsible exploration of critical minerals require rigorous scientific inquiry grounded in local realities. Addressing these pressing issues demands not only technical capability but also the nurturing of a strong scientific temper and research culture within universities and across society in Manipur.

It may be noted that emerging universities also possess a distinct advantage; their close proximity to the community. In Manipur, this connection makes the cultivation of a strong scientific temper especially important, as it enables institutions to ground inquiry in evidence, encourage critical thinking, and translate knowledge into practical solutions. By aligning research with local needs, universities can build a robust model of region-focused innovation that is both socially responsive and scientifically rigorous. Efforts such as developing low-cost water purification systems, advancing sustainable agriculture and aquaculture models, designing frugal renewable energy technologies, documenting biodiversity, studying medicinal plants, strengthening water and flood management, earth-quakes studies and creating effective waste management solutions all require a culture that values observation, experimentation, and data-driven decision-making. Importantly, many of these challenges do not require extravagant infrastructure. They require clarity of thought, interdisciplinary collaboration, careful fieldwork, and strong theoretical foundations. When students are trained to ask the right questions and faculty are encouraged to pursue problem-oriented research, even modest laboratories can produce meaningful and impactful work. Building scientific temper within universities and society will ensure that such locally driven research delivers credible, scalable, and impactful outcomes for Manipur while contributing to broader global knowledge.

In the digital age, data-driven knowledge must no longer remain confined to elite centers only. Expanding open-access journals, online databases, computational platforms, and regional research networks is essential to enable young universities to participate meaningfully in the global scientific discourse. In this context, universities in Manipur should take the lead in establishing integrated data centers focused on biodiversity, indigenous knowledge systems, and extreme climate events. Such centers would function as vital repositories for systematically documenting species diversity, traditional ecological practices, and region-specific climate risks, transforming fragmented information into accessible, research-ready datasets. By integrating modern tools such as geospatial mapping, remote sensing, and advanced data analytics [artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning (ML)] with community knowledge, universities can generate robust evidence to support conservation planning, climate adaptation, and sustainable resource management. These data hubs would further strengthen interdisciplinary research, inform public policy, and enhance early-warning and resilience planning for floods, droughts, and other climate extremes. Ultimately, developing well-curated and dynamic data centers is essential for nurturing scientific temper, safeguarding indigenous wisdom, and enabling informed, locally grounded decision-making with national and global relevance. What is required, however, is not funding alone but also institutional vision and a vibrant academic culture that recognizes and prioritizes regional importance and relevance based on scientific temper and culture. Building that culture means nurturing intellectual integrity, promoting debate, encouraging student-led research initiatives, and strengthening mentorship. It means valuing ideas over hierarchy and evidence over assumption. It means creating an academic environment where curiosity is rewarded and critical thinking is celebrated.

As Sir C.V. Raman once remarked that the essence of science lies in independent thinking and hard work, not merely in equipment or infrastructure. For universities in Manipur, this insight is profoundly relevant. Resource limitations need not be barriers; they can instead become catalysts for creativity and resilience. On this National Science Day 2026, to become Viksit universities in Manipur we must introspect, and discuss on how to embrace scientific temper as the cornerstone of their growth. By investing in strong foundations, rigorous education, interdisciplinary research, collaborative networks, and community engagement, the state can shape institutions that are intellectually vibrant and socially responsive.

Just as a scattered ray of light once revealed hidden molecular truths, a culture of scientific inquiry can illuminate the path forward for higher scientific education in Manipur. The future of the state’s universities will ultimately depend not only on resources, but on the courage to think independently, question deeply, and innovate responsibly.

The question before us is not whether science is important. It is whether we are prepared to place scientific temper at the center of our educational and developmental vision.

National Science Day is a reminder. The responsibility that follows is ours.

(The writer is an Assistant Professor in the Department of Chemistry, Dhanamanjuri University (DMU) Manipur and may be contacted at birla_26@yahoo.co.in )

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SIR and the Indigenous Question in Manipur

The Special Intensive Revision revives debate over citizenship, infiltration, and the ambiguity surrounding the ‘Any Kuki Tribes’ entry in Manipur’s Scheduled Tribes list. With no clear historical or demographic basis for the 2003 insertion, defining indigeneity under the new nomenclature may prove contentious. By Salam Rajesh India is currently in the process of executing a […]

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By Salam Rajesh

India is currently in the process of executing a major task on the identification of its native citizens through a revision in the electoral roll across the country, an exercise that is projected to have hiccups and significant demographic impacts.

The countrywide SIR (Special Intensive Revision) seeks in weeding out the unwanted elements – the unauthorized, illegal entrants to the country via dubious means – infiltration through porous international borders, refugees from ethnic conflicts and wars, illegal immigration, migrant labor, and asylum seekers – all rolled into one.

For a starter, the southern State of Kerala removed a massive 897,211 individuals from its electoral roll, in obviously the process of weeding out unidentified individuals living in the State without authorization.

The Election Commission of India published the final electoral roll for Kerala after the SIR exercise, minus the near nine lakh ‘non-native’ individuals, leaving the actual number of eligible voters in that State at 2,69,53,644 voters, as compared to 2,78,50,855 before the Special Intensive Revision began in October 2025.

In the revised list, male voters numbered 1,31,26,048, while female voters accounted for 1,38,27,319, and transgender voters at 277. The number of overseas voters in the updated roll is 2,23,558, while service voters stand at 54,110.

So, keeping in mind this huge exercise in deleting a chunk of ‘non-native’ electorates from the state’s electoral list, it then comes to the basic question on how Manipur State will fare in this Special Intensive Revision exercise.

For one thing, there are repeated allegations of the unauthorized entry of elements from two neighboring countries – Myanmar and Bangladesh – in all of these years, yet so far failing to do a similar exercise to weed out the undesired elements.

The porous international border with neighboring Myanmar has always been the cited reason for the clandestine entry of illegal immigrants, smugglers, drug runners, armed militants, and so forth. Besides that, the lack of a foolproof mechanism to check entries at Jiribam, Mao Gate and Moreh has also been a factor for the unchecked entry of ‘foreign’ elements into Manipur.

Civil society organizations based in the State have given the call for conducting the NRC (National Register of Citizenship) before proceeding with the SIR exercise in view of the allegations over unaccounted number of ‘non-native’ individuals living in the State without valid documents.

Some time back, too, there was uproar over unreasonable increase in electorates within the Paomata circle in the northern uplands by almost over one hundred thousand individuals, beyond reasons unfathomable.

In the midst of these developments, Union home minister Amit Shah had announced in Guwahati the other day that all undesired elements from the North East region would be identified and kicked out.

This, of course, is better said than done. The northeastern states are well known for the controversies over large number of ‘infiltrators’ living and working in these states without valid reasons.

Assam and Arunachal Pradesh had issues with the Chakma refugees from Bangladesh. Manipur and Mizoram are infested with war refugees from neighboring Myanmar, plus the Rohingya refugees after genocide in that country, and added with the perpetual problem of the infiltration of drug runners and their henchmen.

The Centre had initiated process to fence the entire stretch of the international border shared by Myanmar with the Indian states of Arunachal Pradesh, Assam, Nagaland, Manipur, Mizoram and Tripura, but that again is facing hiccups following objections from the States on the controversial issue of the free movement regime (FMR).

For Manipur, the SIR exercise could be an issue based on the demographic imbalance created by large infiltration particularly from Myanmar, with equal concern on allegations of infiltration from Bangladesh.

The effectiveness of the Inner Line Permit (ILP) system had long been in doubt over reports that the modus operandi of ‘officials’ at the entry points, particularly for the land routes, was turning the operation into a money-minting process by issuing ILPs with fake Aadhar cards.

All said and done, given the reason of the recent ethnic conflicts in the State vis-à-vis the dominance of armed militants ruling the roost, it is probable that the SIR exercise is going to face a rough-shod experience with most likely ‘disturbances’ from the armed non-state actors with dubious objectives, as fairly demonstrated at Sinakeithel village on Monday earlier this week.

Kuki groups had said that they will have nothing doing with the Manipur Government unless their demand for ‘separate administration’ is fulfilled. Yet, with the Central Government flatly denying this, it is perhaps going to be a hurdle for the SIR exercise in the ‘Kuki-inhabited’ pockets within Churachandpur and Kangpokpi districts.

The issue is further complicated by the inclusion of the terminology ‘Any Kuki Tribes’ as was published in the Gazette of India Extraordinary on 8th January, 2003 (in serial No.33 after Poumai in serial 30, Tarao in serial 31 and Kharam in serial 32) recognizing scheduled tribes for the State, where the contention from various angles was that the terminology was vague and does not specify any known tribe(s) in the State as such.

Incidentally, no other Indian State had such vague naming of tribe or terminology in the Amendment to the Act of 2002, thereby creating room for doubt on manipulation to certain degree with none opposing the inclusion at that time.

This particular terminology was (re)inserted in the country’s The Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes Orders (Amendment) Act, 2002 (Gazette of India No.10 of 2003) at a time when the Union Government amended the Act to accord official recognition to few more tribes as Scheduled Tribes of Manipur under the Indian Constitution, and further at a time when a prominent Kuki leader was a minister at the Centre.

The coincidence is reflective of manipulation where the terminology ‘Any Kuki Tribes’ did not feature in the earlier schedule. So, unless this terminology is erased from the scheduled tribes list for Manipur, it is going to make matters complicated at the time of the SIR exercise.

Who would be the ‘Any Kuki Tribes’, and on what basis with reference to the demography and known history of the State, and the population counts all through these years. It will be difficult to name any specific tribe as ‘Indigenous’ under this new nomenclature other than the known tribes already in the scheduled tribes list for the State prior to 2003.

Statistically, Manipur’s total population is seen as rising in every census count. Whereas, this increase is neither re-assessed for validation nor re-confirmed on ground, that is, ground truthing vis-à-vis the allegations of infiltration and establishment of unidentified new villages (some allegedly within Protected Areas such as Reserved Forests and Wildlife Sanctuaries).

In all, the call for NRC exercise prior to SIR exercise sounds reasonable to avoid complicacy in assessing the actual count of heads eligible to cast votes in the State, albeit proxy citizenship and possible forged documents to identify themselves as ‘Indigenous’.

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Read more / Original news source: https://thefrontiermanipur.com/sir-and-the-indigenous-question-in-manipur/

Loktak Fishers Strive to achieve GBF Targets

Champu Khangpok fishers turn global biodiversity goals into grassroots action at Loktak Lake. The fishing community makes it a point to organize important annual events highlighting environmental and ecological concerns, sensitizing locals on the objectives of the GBF targets with prioritization on the long-term conservation of the freshwater Loktak Lake and its biological diversity. By Salam […]

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Champu Khangpok fishers turn global biodiversity goals into grassroots action at Loktak Lake. The fishing community makes it a point to organize important annual events highlighting environmental and ecological concerns, sensitizing locals on the objectives of the GBF targets with prioritization on the long-term conservation of the freshwater Loktak Lake and its biological diversity.

By Salam Rajesh

In these past several recent years, the fishing community thriving upon the floating island village of Champu Khangpok within Loktak Ramsar site in India’s far flung northeastern State of Manipur had continuously been contributing their mite in achieving locally some of the goals outlined in the targets set under the Global Biodiversity Framework of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD).

The Global Biodiversity Framework (GBF) that came into force at the CBD Kunming-Montreal convention during 2022 end came up with several goals that primarily aimed at achieving targets addressing biodiversity loss and species decline worldwide.

Much of the CBD’s GBF Targets – 23 targets in all – predominantly focuses on incorporating the active participation of Indigenous Peoples and Local Communities (IPLCs) in achieving the set goals in both short and long terms.

Fishers staging awareness drive in Loktak Lake.

Keeping this background in perspective, the fishing community of Champu Khangpok floating island village had since set themselves to task in contributing meaningfully towards achieving some of the aspects outlined in the CBD GBF targets in their own humble way, howsoever small their efforts might seem to be.

Champu Khangpok marked the observation of World Wetlands Day 2026 earlier this year with a cleanup drive within the lake and along the waterway of Yangoi Achouba (albeit Nambul River), prioritizing the fact that the lake had since become a dumping ground of urban wastes carried by the river along its flow through Imphal city, a fairly populated urbanized zone.

Champu Khangpok villagers also take upon themselves the task of regulating capture fishery to prevent species population decline within the lake and to restrict random capture of fingerlings during the spawning season, and in preventing unethical fishing methods using LED blubs at nighttime and electrocuting fish using batteries.

The fishing community makes it a point to organize important annual events highlighting environmental and ecological concerns, sensitizing locals on the objectives of the GBF targets with prioritization on the long term conservation of the freshwater Loktak Lake and its biological diversity.

Target 3 of the CBD’s GBF focuses on the conservation of 30 percent of the land, waters and the seas globally to protect life on land and in water. Within this target is an important element to recognize the Indigenous and traditional territories.

The Convention recognizes that ‘Indigenous peoples and local communities often own, occupy and manage areas with unique and significant biodiversity. The appropriate recognition of these areas, therefore, could make important contributions in achieving this target’.

This consideration comes with the perspective that the rights of the Indigenous peoples and local communities must be respected fully, including obtaining their free, prior and informed consent in all matters.

The Convention is convinced that the well-governed, effectively managed and representative protected areas, and other effective area-based conservation measures (OECMs), are a proven method for safeguarding both habitats and populations of species and for delivering important ecosystem services and multiple benefits to people.

The CBD has made it a valid point that ‘local people managed protected areas is a central element of biodiversity conservation strategies at the local, national and global levels’.

This consideration of IPLCs’ contribution in safeguarding biodiversity adds strength in achieving the GBF’s Target 4 which focuses on halting species extinction, protecting genetic diversity, and in managing human-wildlife conflicts.

Target 4 specifically ensures urgent management actions ‘to halt human induced extinction of known threatened species and for the recovery and conservation of species, in particular threatened species, and to significantly reduce extinction risk’.

The goal further is ‘to maintain and restore the genetic diversity within and between populations of native, wild and domesticated species to maintain their adaptive potential, including through in-situ and ex-situ conservation and sustainable management practices’.

In the same breadth, Target 6 of the GBF looks at addressing the menace of Invasive Alien Species (IAS) of plants and animals, seeking the reduction of the introduction of IAS by 50 percent globally within a time frame, and, thereto, minimize their impact on the localized biodiversity.

The objective of Target 6 is broadly outlined as: ‘Eliminate, minimize, reduce and or mitigate the impacts of invasive alien species on biodiversity and ecosystem services by identifying and managing pathways of the introduction of alien species, preventing the introduction and establishment of priority IAS, reducing the rates of introduction and establishment of other known or potential IAS by at least 50 percent, by 2030, eradicating or controlling IAS especially in priority sites, such as islands’.

This is one of the priority areas that the Loktak fishers have specifically focused upon in all of these years, highlighting time and again on the menace of aquatic plants, and fish, that are alien to the freshwater Loktak Lake and which are proving as nuisance plants, and fish, within the lake.

Another of the issues faced by the Loktak fishers is the level of pollution within the lake, accentuated by the pollutant loads and sewerage discharge from the urban areas. The Nambul River carries maximum pollutant loads from the urbanized Imphal city areas, a factor for high pollution level in the lake.

This issue is reflected in the GBF’s Target 7 which specifically focuses on reducing pollution to levels that are not harmful to biodiversity.

Target 7 specifies on ‘reducing pollution risks and the negative impact of pollution from all sources, by 2030, to levels that are not harmful to biodiversity and ecosystem functions and services, considering its cumulative effects’.

It further seeks in ‘reducing excess nutrients lost to the environment by at least half including through more efficient nutrient cycling and use; reducing the overall risk from pesticides and highly hazardous chemicals by at least half including through integrated pest management, based on science, taking into account food security and livelihoods; and also preventing, reducing, and working towards eliminating plastic’.

In a nutshell, achieving these targets might be a herculean task for the marginalized fishing community of Loktak Lake, whereas, the zeal to contribute their mite in the smallest possible ways is there for all to see, visible through their continuous activities in their own humble way.

This is where the state and central authorities can step in to aid the Loktak fishers in their march forward – a tiny step taken yet meaningful in saving, protecting and conserving one of India’s most significant inland freshwater lakes – and, that too, a Ramsar site of international importance.

The post Loktak Fishers Strive to achieve GBF Targets first appeared on The Frontier Manipur.

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